Discovery of the Alternaria mycotoxins alterperylenol and altertoxin I as novel immunosuppressive and antiestrogenic compounds in vitro

Alternaria mycotoxins may pose significant challenges to food safety and public health due to the wide spectrum of reported adverse effects. Despite this, critical information on the immunomodulatory and antiestrogenic properties of most of these contaminants is still lacking. The present study aimed to identify the mycotoxins responsible for the immunosuppressive and antiestrogenic effects of a complex extract of Alternaria mycotoxins (CE) obtained by growing an Alternaria alternata strain on rice. Through a toxicity-guided fractionation procedure involving the production of CE-fractions by supercritical fluid chromatography and mycotoxin quantification by LC-MS/MS, the mycotoxins alternariol (AOH), tenuazonic acid (TeA), altertoxin I (ATX-I), and alterperylenol (ALTP) were identified as potential toxicologically relevant constituents contributing to the in vitro effects exerted by the extract. The assessment of the immunomodulatory effects, performed by applying the NF-kappa B reporter gene assay in THP1-Lucia (TM) monocytes, revealed the scarce contribution of AOH to the effects exerted by the CE. TeA showed no effect on the NF-kappa B pathway up to 250 mu M, whereas ATX-I and ALTP suppressed the LPS-mediated pathway activation at concentrations >= 1 mu M. The evaluation of antiestrogenic effects, performed in Ishikawa cells by applying the alkaline phosphatase assay, revealed the ability of ALTP (>= 0.4 mu M) and ATX-I (>= 2 mu M) to suppress the estrogen-dependent expression of enzyme activity. Given the risk of detrimental impacts stemming from alterations in endocrine and systemic immune responses by the investigated mycotoxins, further studies are needed to elucidate their underlying mechanisms of action and comprehensively evaluate the health risks posed by these toxins.